"Yeah? So's your old man...." That's one classic comeback that we might think of when we hear the word "argument." We think of a heated discussion of something, maybe ending in name-calling or even shoving. But academic argument is something different. The name-calling is more polite, and there's not much shoving.... OK, seriously. Instead of heated discussion, academic argument is calm. Instead of personal references, academic argument uses impersonal, logical reasons and evidence to make a point. The purpose of argument, in an academic setting, is to analyze an issue or a situation and to make a case for your point of view, to convince your reader or listener of the truth of something.

To make a convincing case, academic argument has two elements:

1. an assertion e.g., your argument, or what you are trying to prove

X is better than Y. Scents in the office can affect people's work. UFO's are really government regulated.

In written argument, the argument usually is crystalized in an essay's thesis sentence.
2. proof e.g., evidence to show the truth of the argument.

Sounds simple, right? The concept is simple: you state your point and back it up. But the backing-it-up part is trickier, mostly because so many things can go askew in the relationship between point and backup, the relationship between assertion and proof.

• There are different types of assertions, and you need to choose an assertion that can be proven logically.
• There are different types of proof that can be used, and you need to choose the appropriate type/s for your particular case.
• Even if you have a generally acceptable assertion and appropriate proof, there are lots of ways to influence the argument through language, and you need to choose language that is dispassionate and not too biased so that you're focusing your proof on evidence instead of emotion.

So... what do you need to consider in writing an academic argument?

The Argument Itself

An argument can be called an assertion, a claim or a thesis - whatever makes the most sense to you. Whatever you call it, you need to choose an argument that can be proven. Look at these three examples:

• X is better than Y.
• Scents in the office can affect people's work.
• UFO's are really government regulated.

Immediately you can see that the middle example, Scents in the office can affect people's work, is an argument that can probably be proven. There have been some studies done on the use of scents, especially in Japan, and their effect on workplace actions, workers' emotions and productivity. It's likely that you will be able to find information on this in scientific or business journals that are written for professionals in those fields. So this might actually be provable in terms of academic argument.

It's hard to determine whether the first example, X is better than Y, is provable, as it's not a specific enough assertion. You'd need to define X and Y precisely, and you'd need to define the term better precisely in order even to approach having a provable argument. For example: Learning through doing is more akin to the way most adults learn than learning through classroom lectures. You probably can prove this more precise argument by using evidence from psychologists, educators and learning theorists. The point here is that an argument needs to be precise to be provable.

The last example, UFO's are really government regulated, may not be provable. UFO is a general term that needs to be more precise, as does government (whose government?). Even if you define UFO and government, it may be impossible to find evidence to prove this assertion. Hey, if they really are government regulated, the government isn't going to release that information! Again, the point here is that you won't have an argument if you don't have an assertion that can be proved.

Types of Proof

Proof generally falls into two categories, facts and opinions. A "fact" is something that has been demonstrated or verified as true or something that is generally accepted as truth. For example, it's a fact that the world is round. It's a fact that Frick and Frack argued about who got to carry the umbrella on Tuesday. On the other hand, opinion is based upon observation and is not as absolutely verifiable as fact. It's my opinion that Frick and Frack argue too much.

Both fact and opinion can be acceptable, logical proof for an academic argument -- yes, you heard right -- both fact and opinion can be acceptable, logical proof. Many students assume, incorrectly, that the more facts, the better support for an argument; and they try to load the support up with dates or numbers. But the opinions of experts in the field are just as important as facts in constituting proof for an argument. Expert opinion means that a professional, well-versed in a field, has interpreted and drawn conclusions from whatever facts exist.

In writing -- or in analyzing -- an argument, you need to ask whether the assertion has appropriate proof in terms of type and quantity. For example, it's not enough to argue that adults learn better by doing than by listening to lectures, and to use the experience of one adult learner to validate your argument. You'd need more than one person's experience, and you'd need both facts (generally accepted psychological and physiological observations about the way we learn) and expert opinion (studies done that confirm the facts).

Relationship Between Argument and Proof

The assertion and the proof need to relate to one another carefully and logically to have a solid, acceptable argument. Problems can easily occur in the relationship between assertion and proof; in fact, they are so common and have been prevalent for so long that they even have Latin names! Don't worry -- I won't name them here. It's enough to say that errors usually occur when there are incorrect assumptions underlying the assertion, or incorrect conclusions drawn on the basis of inappropriate or insufficient proof.

For example, you can't logically argue that adult students don't like lectures on the basis of interviews with one or two adult students. You can't assume that because this situation is true for one or two adult learners, it's true for all.

You can't logically argue that our weather has changed on earth because of our forays into outer space. Youcan't conclude that one action has been the sole cause of another action.

You can't logically argue that we have to be either for or against a proposition. You can't assume that only those two responses exist.

As you can see, you need to be careful in thinking through the relationship between assertion and proof. In general, the assertion and any assumptions underlying the assertion need to be generally acceptable, while the proof needs to be sufficient, relevant to the assertion and free of incorrect assumptions and conclusions. There are many web sites that define logical errors; one that gives quick, clear definitions is from the University of Iowa (gives you the Latin names).

There are also many, many texts that deal with the relationship between an assertion and proof -- the nature of argument. A very good, accessible text in the field is Annette Rottenberg's Elements of Argument, which uses Stephen Toulmin's classic The Uses of Argument as its basis. Rottenberg breaks argument down into claim (the argument itself), grounds (the proof) and warrant (the underlying assumptions), and explores the relationship among these pieces of argument within the context of writing good arguments. Another good text is Marlys Mayfield's Thinking for Yourself, which has particularly useful chapters on facts, opinions, assumptions and inferences. Still another good text is Vincent Ruggerio's The Art of Thinking, which looks at both critical and creative thought.

The Role of Language in Argument

Language style and use is crucially important to argument. Has an attempt been made to use straightforward language, or is the language emotionally charged? Has an attempt been made to argue through reliance on evidence, or des the argument rely on swaying your thoughts through word choice and connotation? Is the language precise or vague? Concrete or abstract? Argument exists not only in ideas but also in the way those ideas are presented through language.